Is Adult Learning Compatible with Distance Learning?

Despite the plethora of journals, books and research conferences devoted to adult learning across the world, we are very far from a universal understanding of adult learning. Even though warnings are frequently issued that at best only a multitude of context and domain specific theories are likely to result, the energy expended on developing a general theory of adult learning shows no sign of abating. Judged by epistemological, communicative and critically analytic criteria, theory development in adult learning is weak and is hindered by the persistence of myths that are etched deeply into adult educators' minds (Brookfield, 1992). These myths (which, taken together, comprise something of an academic orthodoxy in adult education) hold that adult learning is inherently joyful, that adults are innately self-directed learners, that good educational practice always meets the needs articulated by learners themselves and that there is a uniquely adult learning process as well as a uniquely adult form of practice. Some argue that the attempt to construct an exclusive theory of adult learning - one that is distinguished wholly by its standing in contradiction to what we know about learning at other stages in the lifespan - is a grave error. Indeed, a strong case can be made that as we examine learning across the lifespan the variables of culture, ethnicity, personality and political ethos assume far greater significance in explaining how learning occurs and is experienced than does the variable of chronological age. 

In contrast to its earlier equation with necessarily limiting correspondence study formats, distance education is now regarded as an important setting within which a great deal of significant adult learning occurs (Gibson, 1992). Weekend college formats, mutli-media experimentations and the educational possibilities unleashed by satellite broadcasting have combined to provide learning opportunities for millions of adults across the world. That adult educational themes of empowerment, critical reflection, experience and collaboration can inform distance learning activities is evident from case studies of practice that are emerging. Modra (1992) provides an interesting account of how she drew on the work of radical adult educators such as Freire, Shor and Lovett to use learning journals to encourage adults' critical reflection in an Australian distance education course. Smith and Castle (1992) propose the use of "experiential learning technology, facilitated from a distance, as a method of developing critical thinking skills" with "the scattered, oppressed adult population of South Africa" .

Several important issues need to be addressed if research on adult learning is to have a greater influence on how the education and training of adults is conducted. First, much greater definitional clarity is needed when the term 'learning' is discussed, particularly whether it is being used as a noun or verb and whether it is referring to behavioral change or cognitive development.

Models of Adult Leaning:

Collins' Cognitive Theory of Inquiry Teaching is a prescriptive model, primarily Socratic in nature, meaning that it relies upon a dialectic process of discussion, questions and answers that occurs between the learner and instructor. The process is guided in order to reach the predetermined objectives, which are described in this theory as teacher goals and subgoals. Ultimately, the learners will discover "how to learn".

Teacher goals and subgoals is one of three main portions of Collins' theory. The second is the strategies used to realize said goals and subgoals and the third is the control structure for selecting and pursuing the different goals and subgoals.

Information Processing Model
 
This model represents information processing as a computer model. Information processing easily relates to computer input-process-output. Processing information involves subroutines or procedures. Subroutines are performed in a hierarchical manner to complete tasks. Flow of control can be diagrammed. Logic Theorist was a computer program by Newell, Shaw and Simon (1955-60) used to simulate the human process of solving theorems in symbolic language. At the same time MIT, had a pattern recognition program.

There have been many computer models for human information processing. Two types of information processing models are those dealing with simulation, or step by step, and those that are dealing with artificial intelligence and are task driven. Logic Theorist emulated six human characteristics of problem-solving behavior.

Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
 
John M. Keller proposed four conditions that must be met for a learner to be motivated to learn. Attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) are the conditions that, when integrated, motivate someone to learn. Moreover, Keller suggests that the ARCS conditions occur as a sequential process (Driscoll, 1993, p. 312). The conditions should be sustained to keep the learner interested in the topic. Once a learner’s attention is lost, motivation is lost, and learning does not occur. Shneiderman (1998, p. 25) states that "memorable educational experiences are enriching, joyful, and transformational." Motivation theory argues that relevant phenomena fulfill personal needs or goals, which enhances effort and performance (Means, Jonassen, & Dwyer, 1997).

How then can one ensure that the ARCS model remain active? The key is to vary the conditions to engage the learner. Because each component of Keller’s ARCS model builds upon the next model, the instructor should keep the four components in mind when designing instruction.

Anchored Instruction
 
Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. While many people have contributed to the theory and research of anchored instruction, Bransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is attributed to him.
The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex, realistic problems. The video materials serve as "anchors" (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning and instruction.

As explained by CTGV (1993, p52): "The design of these anchors was quite different from the design of videos that were typically used in education...our goal was to create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active construct ion of knowledge by learners. Our anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designed to be explored by students and teachers. " The use of interactive videodisc technology makes it possible for students to easily explore the content.

Anchored instruction is closely related to the situated learning framework and also to the Cognitive Flexibility theory in its emphasis on the use of technology-based learning.

Collaborative Learning
 
Collaborative learning, also called cooperative learning, is heavily emphasized in most constructivist approaches (Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1996). Actually, students working in groups to solve problems achieves many goals that supporters of both constructivism and directed instruction consider to be important. The CTGV finds that collaborative learning is the best way to promote generative learning.

Perkins (1991) finds that collaborative learning demonstrates the notion of distributive intelligence, which states that accomplishment is not a function of one person, but rather a group in which each contributes to the achievement of desired goals. Cooperative learning is an ideal way for students to learn the skills that extend beyond the classroom of sharing responsibility and working together toward common goals.

According to Driscoll (2000), collaboration also provides students with a way to understand point of view outside their own. Advances in technology over the past several years have made computer-supported collaborative learning possible. Web-based technologies can make thinking more visible through virtual access to knowledge experts.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
 
PBL engages the learner in a problem-solving activity. In this process, instruction begins with a problem to be solved rather than content to be mastered (Hsiao, 1996). Students are introduced to a real-world problem and are encouraged to dive into it, construct their own understanding of the situation, and eventually find a solution (Grabowski, Koszalka, & Mccarth, 1998). Major goals of PBL are to help students develop collaborative learning skills, reasoning skills, and self-directed learning strategies (Hsiao, 1996).

Five Strategies for Using PBL:

1. The Problem as a Guide - The problem is presented in order to gain attention prior to presenting the lesson.
2. The Problem as an Integrator or Test - The problem is presented after readings are completed and/or discussed -- these are used to check for understanding.
3. The Problem as an Example - The problem is integrated into the material in order to illustrate a particular principle, concept or procedure.
4. The Problem as a Vehicle for Process - The problem is used to promote critical thinking whereby the analysis of how to solve it becomes a lesson in itself.
5. The Problem as a Stimulus for Authentic Activity - The problem is used to develop skills necessary to solve it and other problems -- skills can include physical skills, recall of prior knowledge, and metacognitive skills related to the problem solving process. A form of authentic assessment of the skills and activity necessary in the content domain (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, p.190).

These are only a few of the models that are out there. I invite comment on those that you favor as well as those that you feel are not adaptable to adult learning in a computerized age.

Affordances and Technology

I have decided that once teachers become professors and must produce original research as part of their job description, it begins to get a bit ridiculus. Affordances just means methods of use for diffferent tools of teaching. So, why not say this instead of using the term "affordances"? Because someone had the bright idea that it would make a great paper to use this term instead of a simplier, more direct methd of writing. The project on affordances was interesting, but I already have good grasp on the ways most of the tool sets are used.Finding 5 "affordances" or uses for spreedsheets was rather hard after I had stated calculation of numbers, graphing and tables, but I managed. Hand calculations was so broad that I simply focused on the use of calculators.

Technology in the classroom

It was interesting to discover just what technology is being used in K12 and how extensively it is being used in teaching methods. Just 5 years ago, I still had students who were not computer literate in my courses. That is certainly no longer an issue. I actually think the K12 is more advanced in using technology to teach with than some of the professors at UAB.

I wonder if K12 also uses electronic testing? If so, how do they address the issue of cheating? I have students who take the exams and quizzes off campus, which is not something K12 would do, but even when the exams are given under the teachers nose, cheating can occur. UAB has provided us with Respondus Lockdown, which prevents the students from opening any other brower which taking the exams, and no other browser can remain open once the exam is activated. Once the exam is created, the teacher can go into security in Blackboard Vista, and select  Respondus Lockdown Brower. The student can only access the exam through this software, which is also provided in their online or blended course.

This is just one method. Timing the exams, not allowing the students to revisit the questions (which I do not agree with) not allowing automatic posting of the grades until everyone has taken the exam; these are other ways to discourage cheating.

I would like to hear from others who use technology for exams on how they deal with cheating.

In the beginning

In reflecting on how I entered the world of hybrid/online teaching, it is amazing how far I have come. When I was hired to teach at UAB, the department was still using scantrons for exams, printing out the exams, printing out the syllabi, handouts, and any thing else the professor wanted the students to have. That first year, I cut my printing costs by 2/3s by having electronic exams, and posting my syllabi and power points online.

It did not come easy. I went to seminars and other educational offerings in order to learn how to teach effectively online. I had to learn how to discourage cheating and detect plagiarism, how to encourage interaction within the community of students who were totally online as well as to motivate students who were in courses that were considered hybrid.

Yes, it was alot of upfront work setting up the courses. Teaching modules had to be created, the discussion board had to be organized, exams had to be uploaded and formatted. I added links to supplimental material so the students would have other sources of information more current than their textbooks. I discovered the world of YouTube videos. Chat was a good way to hold virtual office hours.

Then I had to teach my students how to be self directed learners. Most had always been dependent learners, and this concept was new and rather frightening to them. A common complaint was that they were teaching themselves and the professor wasn't doing anything. But they slowly came to understand the concept. Some were naturals. Others had to be instructed in motivational techniques. You see, this technique has its disadvantages when it is not used to include all types of learners. The professor must emerge him/herself in how this can be accomplished and become skillful with those techniques.

For visual learners, videos and video conferences work. For those who must hear the information, voice over used with text and power point works well. For those who learn by touch or writing, using assignments that steer the student in this direction are effective. Use of podcasts, wikis, iphones; all these electronic devices can be used to turn the student into a scholar.

Teaching using electronic devices is challenging to both the professor and the student. If used appropriately and creatively, it can also be fullfilling.