Is Adult Learning Compatible with Distance Learning?

Despite the plethora of journals, books and research conferences devoted to adult learning across the world, we are very far from a universal understanding of adult learning. Even though warnings are frequently issued that at best only a multitude of context and domain specific theories are likely to result, the energy expended on developing a general theory of adult learning shows no sign of abating. Judged by epistemological, communicative and critically analytic criteria, theory development in adult learning is weak and is hindered by the persistence of myths that are etched deeply into adult educators' minds (Brookfield, 1992). These myths (which, taken together, comprise something of an academic orthodoxy in adult education) hold that adult learning is inherently joyful, that adults are innately self-directed learners, that good educational practice always meets the needs articulated by learners themselves and that there is a uniquely adult learning process as well as a uniquely adult form of practice. Some argue that the attempt to construct an exclusive theory of adult learning - one that is distinguished wholly by its standing in contradiction to what we know about learning at other stages in the lifespan - is a grave error. Indeed, a strong case can be made that as we examine learning across the lifespan the variables of culture, ethnicity, personality and political ethos assume far greater significance in explaining how learning occurs and is experienced than does the variable of chronological age. 

In contrast to its earlier equation with necessarily limiting correspondence study formats, distance education is now regarded as an important setting within which a great deal of significant adult learning occurs (Gibson, 1992). Weekend college formats, mutli-media experimentations and the educational possibilities unleashed by satellite broadcasting have combined to provide learning opportunities for millions of adults across the world. That adult educational themes of empowerment, critical reflection, experience and collaboration can inform distance learning activities is evident from case studies of practice that are emerging. Modra (1992) provides an interesting account of how she drew on the work of radical adult educators such as Freire, Shor and Lovett to use learning journals to encourage adults' critical reflection in an Australian distance education course. Smith and Castle (1992) propose the use of "experiential learning technology, facilitated from a distance, as a method of developing critical thinking skills" with "the scattered, oppressed adult population of South Africa" .

Several important issues need to be addressed if research on adult learning is to have a greater influence on how the education and training of adults is conducted. First, much greater definitional clarity is needed when the term 'learning' is discussed, particularly whether it is being used as a noun or verb and whether it is referring to behavioral change or cognitive development.

Models of Adult Leaning:

Collins' Cognitive Theory of Inquiry Teaching is a prescriptive model, primarily Socratic in nature, meaning that it relies upon a dialectic process of discussion, questions and answers that occurs between the learner and instructor. The process is guided in order to reach the predetermined objectives, which are described in this theory as teacher goals and subgoals. Ultimately, the learners will discover "how to learn".

Teacher goals and subgoals is one of three main portions of Collins' theory. The second is the strategies used to realize said goals and subgoals and the third is the control structure for selecting and pursuing the different goals and subgoals.

Information Processing Model
 
This model represents information processing as a computer model. Information processing easily relates to computer input-process-output. Processing information involves subroutines or procedures. Subroutines are performed in a hierarchical manner to complete tasks. Flow of control can be diagrammed. Logic Theorist was a computer program by Newell, Shaw and Simon (1955-60) used to simulate the human process of solving theorems in symbolic language. At the same time MIT, had a pattern recognition program.

There have been many computer models for human information processing. Two types of information processing models are those dealing with simulation, or step by step, and those that are dealing with artificial intelligence and are task driven. Logic Theorist emulated six human characteristics of problem-solving behavior.

Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
 
John M. Keller proposed four conditions that must be met for a learner to be motivated to learn. Attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) are the conditions that, when integrated, motivate someone to learn. Moreover, Keller suggests that the ARCS conditions occur as a sequential process (Driscoll, 1993, p. 312). The conditions should be sustained to keep the learner interested in the topic. Once a learner’s attention is lost, motivation is lost, and learning does not occur. Shneiderman (1998, p. 25) states that "memorable educational experiences are enriching, joyful, and transformational." Motivation theory argues that relevant phenomena fulfill personal needs or goals, which enhances effort and performance (Means, Jonassen, & Dwyer, 1997).

How then can one ensure that the ARCS model remain active? The key is to vary the conditions to engage the learner. Because each component of Keller’s ARCS model builds upon the next model, the instructor should keep the four components in mind when designing instruction.

Anchored Instruction
 
Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. While many people have contributed to the theory and research of anchored instruction, Bransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is attributed to him.
The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex, realistic problems. The video materials serve as "anchors" (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning and instruction.

As explained by CTGV (1993, p52): "The design of these anchors was quite different from the design of videos that were typically used in education...our goal was to create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active construct ion of knowledge by learners. Our anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designed to be explored by students and teachers. " The use of interactive videodisc technology makes it possible for students to easily explore the content.

Anchored instruction is closely related to the situated learning framework and also to the Cognitive Flexibility theory in its emphasis on the use of technology-based learning.

Collaborative Learning
 
Collaborative learning, also called cooperative learning, is heavily emphasized in most constructivist approaches (Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1996). Actually, students working in groups to solve problems achieves many goals that supporters of both constructivism and directed instruction consider to be important. The CTGV finds that collaborative learning is the best way to promote generative learning.

Perkins (1991) finds that collaborative learning demonstrates the notion of distributive intelligence, which states that accomplishment is not a function of one person, but rather a group in which each contributes to the achievement of desired goals. Cooperative learning is an ideal way for students to learn the skills that extend beyond the classroom of sharing responsibility and working together toward common goals.

According to Driscoll (2000), collaboration also provides students with a way to understand point of view outside their own. Advances in technology over the past several years have made computer-supported collaborative learning possible. Web-based technologies can make thinking more visible through virtual access to knowledge experts.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
 
PBL engages the learner in a problem-solving activity. In this process, instruction begins with a problem to be solved rather than content to be mastered (Hsiao, 1996). Students are introduced to a real-world problem and are encouraged to dive into it, construct their own understanding of the situation, and eventually find a solution (Grabowski, Koszalka, & Mccarth, 1998). Major goals of PBL are to help students develop collaborative learning skills, reasoning skills, and self-directed learning strategies (Hsiao, 1996).

Five Strategies for Using PBL:

1. The Problem as a Guide - The problem is presented in order to gain attention prior to presenting the lesson.
2. The Problem as an Integrator or Test - The problem is presented after readings are completed and/or discussed -- these are used to check for understanding.
3. The Problem as an Example - The problem is integrated into the material in order to illustrate a particular principle, concept or procedure.
4. The Problem as a Vehicle for Process - The problem is used to promote critical thinking whereby the analysis of how to solve it becomes a lesson in itself.
5. The Problem as a Stimulus for Authentic Activity - The problem is used to develop skills necessary to solve it and other problems -- skills can include physical skills, recall of prior knowledge, and metacognitive skills related to the problem solving process. A form of authentic assessment of the skills and activity necessary in the content domain (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, p.190).

These are only a few of the models that are out there. I invite comment on those that you favor as well as those that you feel are not adaptable to adult learning in a computerized age.